a - echo in shell scripts echo command in shell scripting is a fundamental tool for outputting text or variables echo "Hello, World!" → prints Hello World echo $greeting → prints the content of $greeting variable you can use escape characters as well echo "This is a newline:\nAnd this is a tab:\t." → using tab escape character -n option avoids new line echo -n "Hello, " → avoids new line
b - printf and here document in shell scripts printf offers more precise control over the output format printf "Name: %s\nAge: %d\n" "$name" "$age" → formating text with printf printf "%.2f\n" "$number" → Output will be "123.46" Here documents are a way to pass multi-line text input into commands or scripts. This is particularly useful for passing large blocks of text or SQL queries. example 1 → multiline example example 2 → use of variables example